Renaissance Italy - At the Court of the Borgia IX

Camerino

Mopping Up

On 8^th July Vitellozzo Vitelli took the Florentine border fortress of Borgo di San Sepulcro for Cesare and on 20^th Cesare took Camerino.

‘At about three o’clock on Saturday afternoon, July 23^rd, the news was brought to the pope that Don Cesare Borgia had taken over Camerino without any fighting……Don Cesare had negotiated a peace treaty with the ruler of Camerino for a specific period of time, but then….had astutely entered and seized the city.’[i]

He took Varano and his children prisoner.

When Louis XII arrived in Milan on 28^th July he was petitioned by the Duke of Urbino, the Orsini[ii] and envoys from the Florentine government, for his help in recovering lands lost during Cesare’s recent campaigns. Cesare left Urbino on 5^th August, disguised as a Knight of St John, and upon arriving in Milan rekindled his friendship with Louis. He proffered his support for Louis’ upcoming campaign in Naples in return for support at Bologna.

Leonardo da Vinci

A Genius at Work

On the 18^th August Cesare appointed Leonardo da Vinci[iii] as his architect and military engineer, ordering him to inspect Cesare’s strongholds and fortresses. He may have been introduced to Cesare by the Florentines, hoping to insert a spy into Cesare’s court. They met in late July in Urbino, Leonardo having just finished a short tour through Cesare’s domains. Cesare promised Leonardo manuscripts;

‘Borges [Cesare] will get me the Archimedes of the Bishop of Padua[iv], and Vitellozzo the one at Borgo di San Sepulcro.’[v]

On 5^th September Lucrezia gave birth to a still-born daughter and she was still unwell when Cesare visited her in Ferrara on 7th, returning from his trip to Milan. Cesare then returned to Rome after meeting Machiavelli in Imola where he had created an administrative headquarters. Lucrezia was out of danger by early October when Rodrigo made the young Giovanni Borgia duke of Camerino as well as of Nepi.

Cesare started on a reformation of the administration of the Romagna, placing some of his relatives in holy orders as administrators. He was attempting to create a government machinery, based in Imola, to replace the capricious rule of the individual families. One of his first acts was to dismiss Lorqua as his vicar-general; he was given Rimini to govern. Cesare placed a noted jurist and humanist Antonio di Monte Sansovino as head of his new administration.

The Great Revolt

Giovanni II Bentivoglio

A number of Cesare’s captains conspired with the disposed lords of the Romagna. They were worried that Cesare’s ambitions were boundless and plotted to assassinate him. The conspirators included a number of members of the Orsini family, Giovanni II Bentivoglio Lord of Bologna, , the Lord of Fermo Oliverotto Eufreducci, Pandolfo Petrucci of Siena, the new Lord of Città di Castello Vitellozzo Vitelli and the Lord of Perugia Gianpaolo Baglioni.

The Orsini discovered that Louis had given permission for Cesare to use them as he wished[vi]. Bentivoglio had received a summons on 17^th September to Rome to answer for his failings as a papal vicar and on 23^rd he was given a direct order by Louis to surrender Bologna to the pope. The other lords and condottiere also had reason to hate the Borgia family.

The conspiracy started with an uprising on 7^th October of the town of San Leo, fiercely loyal to the Montefeltro dukes of Urbino. Other towns, mostly in the south of the Romagna, followed suit including Urbino and Gubbio.

Rocca di San Leo

On 9^th October the conspirators met at La Magione where they agreed to launch a two pronged attack; Vitelli and the Orsini would attack Urbino and Ermes Bentivoglio would attack Imola.

‘Gathering together a force of about five hundred horses and two thousand infantry, they [the conspirators] they first restored the City of Urbino….to Don Guidobaldo….They then surrounded Imola, striking fear into the heart of Don Cesare, and similarly terrifying the pope, who immediately sought help from the King of France.’[vii]

Ugo di Moncada

Realising that he was over extended Cesare ordered Michelotto and Ugo de Moncada to leave Urbino, which they did reluctantly allowing a triumphant Guidobaldo Montefeltre to return to his city. Oliverotto Eufreducci helped the last surviving member of the Varano family retake Camerino.

Fossombrone and Pergola, encouraged by the retaking of Urbino, rose against the Borgia troops stationed in their towns and slaughtered the mainly Spanish garrison. Michelotto and Moncada who were en route to Imola, ignored their orders and their Spanish troops reduced the two towns to smouldering rubble on 11^th October.

The Orsini, Vitelli and Baglioni joined forces and trounced Cesare’s troops at Fossombrone. Moncada was taken prisoner but Michelotto managed to escape, while the remnants of their army were driven down the coast, and Cesare was surrounded at Imola.

Turning the Tables

Imola cathedral

Cesare had been well aware of the negotiations of his condottiere with the rebellious lords of the Romagna. Cesare also had a Florentine observer with him; Machiavelli was still in Imola. In addition Cesare had Louis’ support as he informed Machiavelli;

‘Imagine what I can get to defend myself from those men, the greater part of whom His Majesty the King believes are his violent enemies….the Vitelli cannot reveal themselves at an hour when it will damage me less.’[viii]

Machiavelli assured Cesare that he knew that Cesare would be victorious against his enemies. He had not only Louis’ support but also that of his father; Cesare had access to papal funds and he used these to pay the soldiers he was sending to key fortresses and cities. Cesare was aware that Venice had refused to assist the conspirators and he also knew that Florence could not afford to support them either.

The conspirators also lacked one essential for success, a man with the ability to keep these disparate allies working together. Cesare played divide and rule with his adversaries; one by one the conspirators came to terms with Cesare; Machiavelli informed Florence that a disguised Paolo Orsini visited Cesare in Cesena, on the evening of 24^th October. Cesare informed Paolo that he must have Urbino and Camerino returned to his control; a message that was not received with equanimity by the conspirators when Paolo returned to Magione.

Pandolfo Petrucci

Rodrigo also spent time working on turning the conspirators. His attempts were centred on Cardinal Orsini

‘Cardinal Orsini was rash enough not to consolidate his own power and that of his family after the settlement with the Borgias in November. He refused to listen to anyone, but often remarked with a smile that he had never had any difference with the pope. He imagined that by securing peace he could profit from it.’[ix]

Pandolfo Petrucci contacted Cesare; assuring him, in a craven epistle, that he had never intended to displease him. Cesare’s disloyal captains were forgiven but they had to give him a son each as hostages to fortune. Machiavelli was sceptical of Cesare’s seeming benevolence towards his captains.

Countering the Conspiracy

Ermes Bentivoglio

Mid-November saw Rodrigo using the death of the Bishop of Cortona to replenish the papal coffers, seizing the bishop’s goods and selling the diocese to a Florentine for 2,000 ducats[x]. Rodrigo sent 15,000 ducats[xi] worth of coins to Cesare on 3^rd December; the army was costing 2,000 ducats a day to keep on the road.

When Cesare failed to make any response to Ermes Bentivoglio’s dispositions outside Imola, Ermes withdrew in confusion. On the 9^th December Rodrigo was informed that Cesare had retaken Urbino;

‘The pope heard news of the recapture of Urbino with all its possessions by Don Cesare Borgia, who had reached a satisfactory settlement with Don Guidobaldo whereby the latter was allowed to leave the city in safety with all his wealth and goods.’[xii]

Porta Malatesta Camerino

Two weeks later Rodrigo was told of the recapture of Camerino and on Christmas Day the head of the hated Lorqua was found impaled on a spear in the central square in Cesena. He’d arrived three days previously from Rimini and been arrested on his arrival and was then interrogated. Lorqua’s brutality was well-known and he had been brutalising his new subjects in Rimini, a state of affairs that Cesare clearly did not wish to continue.

The remaining conspirators were won over by Louis’ intervention; Bologna was joined with Florence under French protection and made off limits to Cesare. Giovanni II Bentivoglio was forced to pay Cesare a substantial amount of gold and provide him with troops.

Andrea Doria

On 30^th December Senigallia surrendered to Cesare’s troops. Giovanna da Montefeltro[xiii] fled the town with two barges filled with her possessions and sailed to Venice with her son, leaving the keys in a silver basin to be handed to Cesare. The fortress was surrendered to Cesare by Andrea Doria[xiv]. The following day Cesare himself arrived at Senigallia and was greeted by Vitelli, Euffreducci, and Paolo and Francesco Orsini. Once inside the gates the four were arrested by Cesare’s men.

Bibliography

At the Court of the Borgia – Johan Burchard, Folio Society 1990

Lucrezia Borgia – Rachel Erlanger, Michael Joseph 1979

Florence and the Medici – JR Hale, Phoenix Press 2001

The Rise and Fall of the House of Medici – Christopher Hibbert, Folio Society 2001

The Borgias – Mary Hollingsworth, Quercus Editions 2014

The Borgias – GJ Meyer, Bantam 2013

Leonardo da Vinci – Charles Nicholl, Penguin Books 2005

A History of Venice – John Julius Norwich, Penguin Books 1982

Absolute Monarchs – John Julius Norwich, Random House 2011

The March of Folly – Barbara Tuchman, Cardinal 1990

Niccolo’s Smile – Maurizio Viroli, IB Tauris & Company Ltd 2001

www.wikipedia.en

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[i] At the Court of the Borgia - Burchard

[ii] Who had lost much in the way of lands when Cesare cut his swathe through the Romagna

[iii] Leonardo had been working for Ludvico Sforza and had lost his job when Louis took Milan

[iv] Pietro Barozzi, Bishop of Padua 1487 - 1507

[v] Leonardo da Vinci - Nicholl

[vi] The source may have been Rodrigo who was becoming garrulous in his old age and was often unaware of what he had let slip

[vii] At the Court of the Borgia - Burchard

[viii] Niccolo’s Smile - Viroli

[ix] At the Court of the Borgia - Burchard

[x] In 2013 the relative:historic standard of living value of that income or wealth is £1,216,000.00 economic status value of that income or wealth is £37,680,000.00 economic power value of that income or wealth is £527,100,000.00 www.measuringworth.com

[xi] In 2013 the relative: historic standard of living value of that income or wealth is £9,120,000.00 economic status value of that income or wealth is £282,600,000.00 economic power value of that income or wealth is £3,953,000,000.00 www.measuringworth.com

[xii] At the Court of the Borgia - Burchard

[xiii] Daughter of Federico III da Montefeltro and elder sister of Guidobaldo

[xiv] Genoese Admiral and condottiere

Renaissance Italy - At the Court of the Borgia VIII

Borgia coat of arms

Rumours Abound

The stories about Borgia depravity and of the orgies held in the Vatican may have been just that, stories and many seem to have circulated after the death of Rodrigo. There is evidence to show that famous orgy scenes from Burchard may have been inserted at a later date[i]. It is highly possible that this was at the orders of Rodrigo’s successor to the papacy, Cardinal della Rovere.

One Venetian envoy informed the Senate in Venice that Rodrigo led an orderly life and did not do what had been said (si dice) of him. Alexander was well aware of the slanders but, unlike Cesare and others before and after him, rarely attempted to enforce his own version of events. In late January 1502 action was taken while Rodrigo was out of the city;

‘The brother of Don Giovanni Lorenzi was arrested on the charge of having been furnished with letters written in Greek by Don Giovanni against the pope and Don Cesare Borgia, and of having transcribed them into Latin for the Venetians.’[ii]

The Signoria requested Don Lorenzi’s return on 31^st January but Rodrigo politely declined their request; Don Lorenzi had been strangled and thrown in the Tiber, retribution possibly being ordered by Cesare.

The Despoliation of the Kingdom of Naples

Rodrigo ordered that all assistance was to be given to the French army victuallers. The French had been taking what they wanted rather than paying for it making them exceedingly unpopular. The French left Rome on 29^th 1501 June and papal troops followed on 3^rd July; on 4^th August the French commander, Yves d’Aubigny entered Naples by agreement with Frederick;

‘The French commander was to take possession of all the fortresses of Naples, whilst King Federigo was to be allowed to reside in Ischia for six months, during which time he could defend himself if he received arms and men from anyone to help him.’[iii]

Sermonetta

Frederick was then allowed to retire to Anjou where he spent the last three years of his life peacefully[iv].

In the meantime Rodrigo had been touring the lands formerly owned by the Colonna family visiting Sermoneta, Genazzano and Frascati. He had been accompanied by Cardinals Serra[v], Ludovico and Francesco Borgia. During his absence Lucrezia had Rodrigo’s authority to deal his correspondence.

Another Beginning

Alfonso d'Este

On 31^st December 1501 Lucrezia was wed again, this time to Alfonso d’Esté, eldest son of the Duke of Ferrara. The negotiations with Duke Ercole had been lengthy; Lucrezia had refused at least one suitor on her return to Rome and had shut herself up in a convent.

Rodrigo paid out 100,000 gold ducats[vi] to the bridegroom’s brothers as part of Lucrezia’s dowry; a further 75,000 ducats[vii] was spent on clothes, jewels, silver and other goods and Rodrigo forced his cardinals to agree to a lowering of Ferrara’s tribute to the church.

‘The pope held a secret consistory on the Friday, and in it, with the consent of all the cardinal’s present, he remitted the annual payment of four thousand ducats[viii] made by the Duke of Ferrara to the Apostolic Chamber, cancelling it for the duke and his successors to the third generation, leaving only a nominal sum of one hundred ducats[ix] to be paid each year.’[x]

The marriage agreement was signed at the Vatican on 26^th August; the dickering over the dowry between Rodrigo and Duke Ercole had been ongoing since December. 

Cardinal Costa

The bridegroom had only been persuaded to marry a woman whose reputation was greatly sullied[xi], by being informed that if Alfonso failed to step up to the mark his father would have to marry Lucrezia.

On 24^th January 1502, at a secret consistory Cardinal da Costa and the proctor for Cardinal della Rovere both resigned the perpetual administration of the church in Bologna. Rodrigo removed the two fortresses of Cento and Pieve di Cento and added them to Lucrezia’s dowry. Cardinal Giovanni Stefano Ferrero[xii] was then made Bishop of Bologna.

Lucrezia had to leave her small son Rodrigo in Rome when she left for Ferrara; a separation that was very painful for the pair of them and Lucrezia apparently was never reconciled to the loss of her child. She frequently wrote to his guardians and made attempts to see her son after her departure from Rome. The two year old Rodrigo was given an allowance of 15,000 ducats[xiii].

The Fall of Urbino

Arezzo

By late spring Cesare was ready for a third campaign to tighten his grip on the Romagna. He withdrew 54,000 ducats[xiv] from the papal treasury in May to pay his troops; the papal treasury paid out 3,320 ducats[xv] on gunpowder for the months May to July.

On 4^th June the city of Arezzo rebelled against its Florentine overlords. The town was immediately occupied by Cesare’s captain Vitellozzo Vitelli; he and his men were welcomed by the citizens. Louis was deeply unimpressed and sent unequivocal orders for Vitelli and his men to pull out of Arezzo. Without consulting Cesare, Vitelli refused.

Rocca del Borgia, Camerino

On 5^th June Rodrigo excommunicated Giulio Cesare Varano[xvi], the Lord of Camerino, accusing him of giving help to the church’s enemies. Varano had also failed to pay his annual tribute to the Vatican and besides was deeply unpopular with his people.

On 13^th June Cesare finally left Rome with an army of 8,000 men and artillery. He asked permission to cross Urbino lands on his way north. He left behind him two dead; the Lord of Faenza and his half-brother were found in the Tiber, hands and feet both bound. There was no-one legally positioned to contest Cesare’s control of Faenza.

Palazzo Ducale, Urbino

On 21^st June 1502 instead of passing through the lands of the Montefeltre, Cesare took Urbino forcing the Duke to flee.

‘Duke Cesare……asked Guidobaldo da Montefeltro, Duke of Urbino, for the loan of his infantry and artillery, which he was given. So Duke Cesare , escorted by some of his cavalry went immediately to the fortress and the contract was signed. One of the Duke of Urbino’s secretaries then advised his master to flee, and Duke Cesare seized the fortress.’[xvii]

The Duke took refuge with his brother-in-law Duke Ercole of Ferrara at Monisterolo, he then travelled on to Mantua to join his wife. Cesare had the treasures of Urbino packed up and taken to his base at Cesena, commanded by his captain Ramiro de Lorqua[xviii]. Cesare claimed that Duke Guidobaldo was assisting the excommunicated Varano of Camerino.

The Prince

I

Machiavelli

n late June 1502 Cesare was to meet a man upon whom he made a deep and lasting impression, Niccolo Machiavelli who was acting as a negotiator for the city of Florence over the vexed question of Arezzo. He accompanied the Bishop of Volterra, Francesco Soderini, to Urbino. Cesare told the envoys;

‘I know your city is not well-minded towards me but would abandon me like an assassin. If you refuse me for a friend you shall know me for an enemy.’[xix]

The envoys requested that Cesare’s troops withdraw from Arezzo; Machiavelli was fascinated by Cesare and reported;

‘This Duke is so enterprising that nothing is too great to be discounted by him. For the sake of glory and the enlarging of his dominions, he deprives himself of rest, yielding to no fatigue, no danger….and he has constant good luck.’[xx]

Cesare did not care for the city’s republic form of government and demanded either that it be changed, or that they pay him the promised 36,000 ducats. In return Soderini and Machiavelli played their trump card, the promise from Louis XII to protect the Florence from any attack.

Cesare was not intimidated by the threat and told the two envoys;

‘I know better than you what the king has in mind; you will be deceived.’[xxi]

The following day two of his henchmen threatened the envoys again with an implicit promise to attack Florence. The Florentine envoys returned home at the end of June; Machiavelli rode ahead of Soderini to request for further instructions. In fact Cesare was looking for an alliance with the city, but in view of Florentine intransigence he created another option for himself.

Bibliography

At the Court of the Borgia – Johan Burchard, Folio Society 1990

Lucrezia Borgia – Rachel Erlanger, Michael Joseph 1979

Florence and the Medici – JR Hale, Phoenix Press 2001

The Rise and Fall of the House of Medici – Christopher Hibbert, Folio Society 2001

The Borgias – Mary Hollingsworth, Quercus Editions 2014

The Borgias – GJ Meyer, Bantam 2013

Leonardo da Vinci – Charles Nicholl, Penguin Books 2005

A History of Venice – John Julius Norwich, Penguin Books 1982

Absolute Monarchs – John Julius Norwich, Random House 2011

The March of Folly – Barbara Tuchman, Cardinal 1990

Niccolo’s Smile – Maurizio Viroli, IB Tauris & Company Ltd 2001

www.wikipedia.en

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[i] They show evidence of clumsy inaccuracies of a kind that Burchard normally did not make

[ii] At the Court of the Borgia - Burchard

[iii] At the Court of the Borgia - Burchard

[iv] Frederick’s son and heir Ferrante fell into the hands of the Spanish in 1504 and they kept him prisoner for the next 54 years.

[v] Tutor to Giovanni Borgia

[vi] In 2013 the relative: historic standard of living value of that income or wealth is £62,850,000.00 economic status value of that income or wealth is £1,980,000,000.00 economic power value of that income or wealth is £27,740,000,000.00 www.measuringworth.com

[vii] In 2013 the relative: historic standard of living value of that income or wealth is £47,140,000.00 economic status value of that income or wealth is £1,485,000,000.00 economic power value of that income or wealth is £20,800,000,000.00 www.measuringworth.com

[viii] In 2013 the relative: historic standard of living value of that income or wealth is £2,514,000.00 economic status value of that income or wealth is £79,210,000.00 economic power value of that income or wealth is £1,110,000,000.00 www.measuringworth.com

[ix] In 2013 the relative: historic standard of living value of that income or wealth is £62,850.00 economic status value of that income or wealth is £1,980,000.00 economic power value of that income or wealth is £27,740,000.00 www.measuringworth.com

[x] At the Court of the Borgia - Burchard

[xi] There were plenty of rumours to the effect that Lucrezia had slept with her brothers

[xii] His father was Louis XII’s treasurer

[xiii] In 2013 the relative: historic standard of living value of that income or wealth is £9,427,000.00 economic status value of that income or wealth is £297,000,000.00 economic power value of that income or wealth is £4,161,000,000.00 www.measuringworth.com

[xiv] In 2013 the relative: historic standard of living value of that income or wealth is £32,830,000.00 economic status value of that income or wealth is £1,017,000,000.00 economic power value of that income or wealth is £14,230,000,000.00 www.measuringworth.com

[xv] In 2013 the relative: historic standard of living value of that income or wealth is £2,019,000.00 economic status value of that income or wealth is £62,550,000.00 economic power value of that income or wealth is £875,000,000.00 www.measuringworth.com

[xvi] The father of St Camilla Battista da Varano; he had murdered his brother to take the lordship of this town of 30,000

[xvii] The Borgias – Hollingsworth

[xviii] A veteran of the Reconquista in Spain, he was a long time associate of Cesare’s

[xix] Leonardo da Vinci - Nicholl

[xx] Ibid

[xxi] Niccolo’s Smile - Viroli